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Earth-ScienceReviews127(2013)171–

192

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Earth-ScienceReviews

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Faultzonehydrogeology

V.F.Bensea,⁎,T.Gleesonb,S.E.Lovelessa,O.Bourc,J.Scibekd

SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichNR47TJ,England,UnitedKingdomCivilEngineering,McGillUniversity,Montréal,QCH3A2K6Canadac

GéosciencesRennes,UMR6118RS,UniversitédeRennes1,CampusdeBeaulieu,35042Rennes,Franced

SRKConsultingInc.,22ndFloor,1066WestHastingsStreet,Vancouver,BCV6E3X2,Canada

articleinfoabstract

Deformationalongfaultsintheshallowcrust(b1km)introducespermeabilityheterogeneityandanisotropy,whichhasanimportantimpactonprocessessuchasregionalgroundwaterﬂow,hydrocarbonmigration,andhy-drothermalﬂuidcirculation.Faultzoneshavethecapacitytobehydraulionduitsconnectingshallowanddeepgeologicalenvironments,butsimultaneouslythefaultcoresofmanyfaultsoftenformeffectivebarrierstoﬂow.Thedirectevaluationoftheimpactoffaultstoﬂuidﬂowpatternsremainsachallengeandrequiresamultidisci-plinaryresearcheffortofstructuralgeologistsandhydrogeologists.However,weﬁndthatthesedisciplinesoftenusedifferentmethodswithlittleinteractionbetweenthem.Inthisreview,wedocumentthecurrentmulti-disciplinaryunderstandingoffaultzonehydrogeology.Wediscusssurface-andsubsurfaceobservationsfromdi-verserocktypesfromunlithiﬁedandlithiﬁedclasticsedimentsthroughtocarbonate,crystalline,andvolcanicrocks.Foreachrocktype,weevaluategeologicaldeformationmechanisms,hydrogeologicobservationsandcon-ceptualmodelsoffaultzonehydrogeology.Outcropobservationsindicatethatfaultzonesmonlyhaveaper-meabilitystructuresuggestingtheyshouldactasplexconduit–barriersystemsinwhichalong-faultﬂowisencouragedandacross-faultﬂowisimpeded.Hydrogeologicalobservationsoffaultzonesreportedinthelitera-tureshowabroadqualitativeagreementwithoutcrop-basedconceptualmodelsoffaultzonehydrogeology.Nevertheless,thespeciﬁcimpactofaparticularfaultpermeabilitystructureonfaultzonehydrogeologycanonlybeassessedwhenthehydrogeologicalcontextofthefaultzoneisconsideredandnotfromoutcropobservationsalone.Togainamoreintegrated,prehensiveunderstandingoffaultzonehydrogeology,weforeseenumeroussynergisticopportunitiesandchallengesforthedisciplineofstructuralgeologyandhydrogeologytoco-evolveandaddressremainingchallengesbyco-locatingstudyareas,sharingapproachesandfusingdata,developingconceptualmodelsfromhydrogeologicdata,numericalmodeling,andtraininginterdisciplinaryscientists.

Articlehistory:

Received6September2011Aepted27September2013Availableonline10October2013Keywords:FaultzoneHydrogeologyStructuralgeology

Contents1.2.3.

Introduction.................................................Approachestofaultzonehydrogeology.....................................Faultzoneprocessesfromsurface-focusedstudies................................3.1.Terminologyandfaultzonearchitecture.................................3.2.Impactoffaultzoneprocessesonpermeability..............................

3.2.1.Faultzoneprocessesthatenhancepermeability.........................3.2.2.Faultzoneprocessesthatreducepermeability..........................3.2.3.Interacting,secondaryorlarger-scaleprocessesthateitherreduceorenhancefaultzonepermeability.

Conceptualgeologicalmodelsoffaultzonehydrogeology.............................4.1.Unlithiﬁed-andlithiﬁedsiliciclasticrock.................................4.2.Crystallinerock............................................4.3.Volcanicrock.............................................4.4.Carbonaterock............................................Hydrogeologicalevidenceoftheimpactoffaultsonﬂuidﬂow...........................5.1.Unlithiﬁed-andlithiﬁedsiliciclasticrock.................................5.2.Crystallineandvolcanicrock......................................5.3.Carbonaterock............................................

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

172172173173175175176179180182182182182183183184185

author.

E-mailaddress:v.bense@uea.ac.uk(V.F.Bense).

172V.F.Benseetal./Earth-ScienceReviews127(2013)171–192

6.7.

Modelingﬂuidﬂowinfaultzones........Towardsinterdisciplinaryfaultzonehydrogeology7.1.Controlsonﬂuidﬂowaroundfaultzones.7.2.Thetaleoftwodisciplines........7.3.Thefuturetaleofoneinter-discipline?..Acknowledgments.................References................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................185186186187187188188

1.Introduction

Astheplumbingoftheearth,faultzonesintheshallowcrust(b1km)impactasuiteofgeologicalprocesses.Faultsaffectﬂuidﬂowpatternsingroundwateraquifers(e.g.,Levensetal.,1994;Mayeretal.,2007;Benseetal.,2008;Burbey,2008;FolchandMas-Pla,2008),andhydrocarbonmigrationandentrapmentinreservoirrocks(e.g.,Aydin,2000;SorkhabiandTsuji,2005)aswellasthesafestorageofnuclearwaste(Bredehoeft,1997;Douglasetal.,2000;Mal'kovskiiandPek,2001;Ofoegbouetal.,2001),andCO2sequestration(e.g.,Shiptoal.,2004;Agostaetal.,2008;DockrillandShipton,2010;Kampmaal.,2012;Tueckmanteletal.,2012b).Fluidexpulsionandlocalizedmineralizationalongfaultscanleadtotheformationofeco-nomicmineraldeposits(e.g.,Deming,1992;Garveal.,1999;Persoal.,2008),andprovidesevidenceofenhancedpastﬂuidcircu-lationalongfaultsbothonEarth(e.g.,MozleyandGoodwin,1995;Heynekampetal.,1999;CaineandMinor,2009;Balsamoetal.,2013)andonMars(Treiman,2008).Mineralizationassociatedwithﬂuidﬂowandwater–rockinteractioncanimpactthemechanicalstrengthoffaults,potentiallyaffectingthecharacteroffaultslipinresponsetoearthquakesinthedeepercrust(e.g.,MooreandRymer,2007;Carpenteretal.,2011).Thespeciﬁcimpactoffaultsongroundwaterﬂowindifferentgeologicalenvironmentsisplex,diverseandoftennotwellunderstooddespitetherelevanceofunderstandingﬂuidﬂowaroundfaultzonesatshallowcrustaldepthswhichisimportanttonumeroussocietalconcerns.

Thefundamentallawofﬂuidﬂowthroughporousmedia,Darcy'sLaw,indicatesthatsubsurfaceﬂuidﬂowiscontrolledbyabinationofrockpermeabilityandthehydraulicgradientwithintherockmass.Examiningdeformationprocessesaswellastheinternalstructureandarchitectureoffaultzonestructureusingtoolsfromstructuralgeologyiscriticaltoobtainaprimaryunderstandingofthepermeabilitystruc-tureoffaultzones.However,hydraulicgradientsaroundfaultzonesarestronglycontrolledbyhydrogeologicprocessessuchasratesofgroundwaterrechargeforcingtopography-drivenﬂow,anthropogenicinﬂuencessuchasextractionofgroundwater,anddeeperprocesseslikeﬂuidﬂowdrivenbysedimentpaction.Hence,examininghy-draulicgradientspresentnearfaultzonesanddelineationofﬂuidﬂowpathsinfaultzonesusingtoolsfromhydrogeologyshouldalsobecen-tralinadevelopmentofaprehensiveunderstandingoftheroleoffaultzonesinhydrogeology(Karasakietal.,2008).Thoughthereisaconsiderablebodyofresearchonfaultsandﬂuidﬂowinbothhydroge-ologyandstructuralgeologydisciplines,thereislimitedevidenceofanexchangeofinsightsorintegrationbetweenthem.

Wefocusonfaultprocessesandsingle-phasegroundwaterﬂowpat-ternsintheshallowcrustafterfaultdeformation.Atgreaterdepthsfrac-turedrockswillcontainpredominantlysalinegroundwatersand/orhydrocarbonaumulationsanddensity-dependentandmulti-phaseﬂowisbeyondthescopeofthisreview.Atgreaterdepths,seismogenicdeformationandotherdeformationmechanismsbeyondourscopearealsomoreimportant.Althoughwedonotdiscusstheimpactoffaultsonﬂowinhydrocarbonreservoirsinmuchdetail,inSection5weincludehydrocarbonreservoirmodelswhichinmanycasescouldbedirectlytransferabletoshallowsingle-phasegroundwatersystems.Byfocusingevolutiononﬂuidﬂowinactivefaultzones.Forsimplicity,inthispaperweusethetermrockforbothlithiﬁedandunlithiﬁedmaterials.Inthecontextoffaultzonehydrogeologyweconsiderafaultzoobethevolumeofrockwherepermeabilityhasbeenalteredbyfault-relateddeformation.Theprotolithistheundeformedgeologicalmateri-alsurroundingthefaultzone.

Ourobjectiveinthispaperistopropelresearchonfaultzonehydro-geologyforwardbyprovidingaprehensiveoverviewofthestudyofﬂuidﬂowinandaroundfaultzonesatshallowdepths(b1km)wheresurfaceandsubsurfacedataismostabundant.Wediscussfaultzonehy-drogeologyasstudiedfromastructuralgeologicalandhydrogeologicalviewpointinSection2.InSection3wediscussthegeologicalprocessesandhydrogeologicalcharacteristicsoffaultzonesderivedfromthestudyofrockoutcrops,inarangeofgeologicalsettings.Section4dis-cussestheconceptualmodelsofﬂuidﬂowinfaultzonesasderivedfromoutcropdata.Section5reviewshydrogeologicalevidenceoftheimpactoffaultsinasimilarrangeofgeologicalsettings.Studiesthathaveemployedmodelsasintegrativetoolstodescribeﬂuidﬂowpat-ternsaroundfaultzonesarediscussedinSection6.Finally,wediscussdifferentstrategiestodevelopamoreprehensiveandintegratedframeworkfortheinvestigationofﬂuidﬂowaroundfaultzonesintheshallowcrust(Section7).Throughoutthetextterminologyisboldedwhenitisﬁrstdeﬁned.

2.Approachestofaultzonehydrogeology

Hydrogeologistsandstructuralgeologistsusedifferentmethodsandapproachestostudyingfaultzonehydrogeology(Fig.1).Explicitlyreviewingthepurpose,datarequired,limitationsandadvantagesofeachindividualtechniqueisbeyondthescopeofthispaperbuthasbeensummarizedinTable1.Hereweprovideanoverviewofthediffer-entapproachesandhowtheseareimpactedbydataavailability,ﬁeldareasandscale.

Surface-focusedstudies,mostlybystructuralgeologists,usetech-niquessuchasoutcropmappingoffaultzoneattributes,forexamplethelength,orientationandapertureoffractureswithinthefaultzone,thefaultrockgrainsizeandporosity,andpermeametrytoobtainthepermeabilityoffaultrocks(Fig.1a).Outcropdatacanbeusedinnumer-icalﬂowmodelsoffaultzones(Section6).Fromoutcrop-basedstudiesasetofconceptualhydrogeologicalmodelshavebeendevelopedintheliterature(outlinedinSection3.2)thatsuggestthatfaultsactasbarriershamperingﬂuidmigration,asconduitspropagatingthemovementofﬂuidsorasmoreplexconduit–barriersystems(Caineetal.,1996;Aydin,2000;Rawlingetal.,2001;BenseandPerson,2006).However,di-recthydrogeologicalevidenceoftheimpactsofparticularfaultsonﬂuidﬂowtotestandreﬁheseoutcrop-basedfaultmodelsisoftenlacking.

Subsurface-focusedstudies,oftencarriedoutbyhydrogeologists,inferthehydrogeologicalbehavioroffaultzonesfromarraysofbore-holesorspringsusuallywithoutobservingfaultstructuredirectlyinoutcrop(Fig.1b).Oftengroundwaterhydrologistsneedtobeopportun-istsinthestudyoffaultzonesasgroundwatermonitoringworksaredesignedtocharacterizethehydrodynamicsofaquifersasawholewithoutanyspeciﬁcfocusonfaultzones.Hence,closelyspacedarraysofboreholesoverfaultzonesarerare.However,theshapeofthehy-

V.F.Benseetal./Earth-ScienceReviews127(2013)171–192173

Fig.1.Investigationoffaultzonehydrogeologyhasoftenfocusedon(a)characterizationofsurfaceoutcropsoftenbystructuralgeologistsor(b)byinvestigationofboreholedataprovidinginformationongeologyanddirecthydrogeologicalevidenceoftheimpactoffaultsonﬂuidﬂow.Thesourceofﬁelddataleadstodifferentconceptualmodels,numericalmodelingassump-tionsandmethods.Table1listsexamplesofstudiesemployingthedifferentmodesofinvestigationandﬁeldmethodologies.Surfaceinvestigationssometimeshaveamorethree-dimensionalsurfaceexposure(i.e.atminesitesorinmountainoustopography)andsomesub-surfaceinvestigationsincludetunnelsorundergroundmines.

gradientatfaultzonescanbeusedtoinferthedirectionsandrateofﬂuidﬂowatthefaultzone(e.g.Haneberg,1995;Benseetal.,2003a;AndersonandBakker,2008)andprovideanindicationofthehydrogeologicalbe-haviorofafaultzoneasabarrieroraconduit(Fig.2a).Groundwatertemperature,geochemistryandage(e.g.,BethkeandJohnson,2008;Lerayetal.,2012)canconstraingroundwaterﬂowpathsacrossfaultzonesinconjunctionwithhydraulicheadobservations(Fig.2bandc).Boreholescanalsobeusedforhydraulictestingwithpackerorpumpingteststoenhancegroundwaterﬂowratesaroundfaultzonestoelucidatethefaultzonehydrogeologicalstructure(AndersonandBakker,2008).Samplinggroundwatergeochemistry,measuringhydraulichead,tem-peratureandotherparametersduringpumpingtestscanresultinde-tailedinferencesonfaultzonehydrogeologicalproperties(Roquesetal.,submittedforpublication).

Differencesinthemethodologiesusedbyhydrogeologistsandstruc-turalgeologistsispartlyduetocontrastsinthetypeofdataavailableinﬁeldareas(Fig.1).Denseworksofwellsavailabletocollectdetailedhydrogeologicalevidenceonfaultbehavioraretypicallyfoundindevel-opedareaswhereoutcropsthatarenecessaryforstructuralgeologicaloutcrop-basedstudiesareusuallysparse.Viceversa,wherefaultzonesarewellexposedinoutcrop,adenseworkofwellsisoftennotavail-ableastheseareasaregenerallylessdevelopedand/orthegroundwaterisnotnearthesurface.Therefore,probablyinpartduetothedifferencesinmethods,dataavailabilityandﬁeldareas,weﬁndthatthereislimitedevidenceofanexchangeofinsightsorintegrationbetweenhydrogeol-ogyandstructuralgeologicaldisciplines.

Eachmethodusedbystructuralgeologistsandhydrogeologistshasacharacteristicscaleoverwhichthemethodintegratesobservationsbeingexaminedatvariousscalesbythetwodisciplines.Generally,themethodsusedbystructuralgeologistsexaminesmallerintegrationscalesofb0.01m(microstructure)toe.g.100m(outcropstudies)whereashydrogeologistsoftenalsoinferfaulthydrogeologicalbehavioratlargerintegrationscalesofe.g.N10km.Mostofthemethodsusedbyhydrogeologistsintegrateoverlargerscalesthanthetypicalwidthofmanyfaultcores(Section3),whichsuggeststhathydrogeologicalmethodscanonlyinfertheeffectivehydrogeologicimpactoffaultzonesratherthanconstraintheinternalpermeabilitystructureoffaultzones.Conversely,itmaybedifﬁculttoelucidatearegionalimpactoffaultsonﬂuidﬂowfromthesmallerscalestudiesconductedbystruc-turalgeologists.

3.Faultzoneprocessesfromsurface-focusedstudies3.1.Terminologyandfaultzonearchitecture

Structuralgeologistshavedescribedfaultzonesinoutcropindiversesettings(Fig.4)suchaspoorlylithiﬁedsedimentaryrock,forexamplebasinﬁllsedimentsintheGulfofCorinthRiftbasin(Fig.4a;Lovelessetal.,2011),theLowerRhineEmbayment(Benseetal.,2003b),theRioGrandeRiftbasin(Fig.4b;Heynekampetal.,1999;Sigdaetal.,1999;RawlingandGoodwin,2006;CaineandMinor,2009),insouthernItaly(BalsamoandStorti,2010)andAustria(ExnerandGrasemann,2010),andglacialdepositsinDenmark(Kristenseal.,2008).Inlithiﬁedsedimentaryrocks,theColoradoplateauisaclassicareaofstudywheremanyresearchershavefocusedeffortstodeterminefaulthydraulicproperties(Fig.4c;AntonelliniandAydin,1994,1995;

174V.F.Benseetal./Earth-ScienceReviews127(2013)171–192

Table1

Variousapproachesusedbystructuralgeologistsandhydrogeologiststostudyfaultzonehydrogeology.Method

StructuralgeologyOutcropmapping

Purpose

RequirementsanddataFieldexposures;lithologicandstructuraldataCoresoroutcropsamplesMineralogyandelementalpositionoffaultponentsRocksamples

ments

Datalimitedtonear-surfacecharacteroffaultzonesthatmighthoweverbeexhumedfromdeepercrustallevels

Rocksamplestakenatasmallscalemightnotberepresentativeoflargerscaleprocesses

Literatureexamples

LehnerandPilaar(1997),CaineandForster(1999),Jourdeetal.(2002),andShiptoal.(2006a)

EvansandChester(1995),CaineandMinor(2009),andKoukouvelasandPaoulis(2009)

Mapproductsof

deformationandfaultarchitecture

FaultrockmineralogyExaminewater–rock

interactionsandgeochemistry

studies

Laboratorycoretests

Permeabilitymeasurement

In-situpermeametry(usuallyusingminiair-permeameters)Hydrogeology

DrillingandboreholegeophysicsFlowmetertesting

PermeabilitymeasurementSuitable(fresh,smooth)surfacesinoutcrop

Rocksamplessmallscale,notnecessarilyrepresentativeoflargerscaleaverage

permeability,butprovidedirectmeasurements.Canbeusedtostudypermeabilitydevelopmentwithprogressivestrain

Potentialofmappingspatialdistributionofpermeabilityacrossfaultzonesindetail

Evansetal.(1997),Ogilvieetal.(2001),

Ngwenyaetal.(2003),andFaoroetal.(2009)

AntonelliniandAydin(1994),Sigdaetal.(1999),Rawlingetal.(2001),andBalsamoandStorti(2010)

Pumpingtesting

DirectsubsurfacesamplingandmeasurementofpetrophysicalpropertiesDeterminepermeabilityandstorativityoffaultponentorfracture(s)EffectivepermeabilitymeasurementofaquiferIdentifyﬂowdiscontinuities

Delineatingofﬂuidﬂowpaths

Delineatingﬂuidﬂowpaths

Forexample,geophysicalloggingofboreholesand/orinter-boreholetomographyPressureorﬂowresponsemeasuredinwell

Pressureresponsemeasuredinwellﬁeld

Waterlevelsinwellﬁeld

MappinghydraulicheadgradientsUseofheatto

characterizeﬂowArtiﬁcialandenvironmentaltracers

NumericalmodelingDiscretefractureworkmodelsContinuummodels

Distributionoftemperatureinaquifers

Groundwatergeochemistry

Largerangeoftechniquesavailable.TranslationofMoretti(1998),andEllsworthetal.(2005)geophysicalpropertiestohydrogeologicalpropertiescanbeproblematic

AllowstodirectlymeasureﬂuidﬂuxesDavisonandKozak(1988),Martial.

(1990),Hsieh(2000),andLeBneetal.(2006),

ProvideseffectiveaquiferpropertiesbutwithoutShaal.(1995),MarlerandGe(2003),adelineationofﬂowpathsAndersonandBakker(2008),andMedeiros

etal.(2009)

DirectevidenceofimpactonhydraulicheadbutHaneberg(1995),andBenseandVanBalenwellsneedtobeverycloselyspacedatfaultzones(2004)toresolvegradientinsufﬁcientdetail

DirectevidenceofﬂowpathsbutﬂowneedstobeFairleyandHinds(2004),Andersonand

Fairley(2008),Benseetal.(2008),andReadsigniﬁcantenoughtodisturbthebackground

etal.(2013)geothermalgradient

Whiteman(1979),Abelial.(1991),Directevidenceofﬂuidﬂowbutthe

Gascoyneetal.(1993),RughandBurbeyinterpretationofgeochemicaldatacanbea

(2008),andLerayetal.(2012)challenge

Integratingboreholeand/

oroutcropdata,

parameterestimationIntegratingboreholeand/oroutcropdata,

parameterestimation

3Ddistributionsoffracturecharacteristics,hydraulictests

Effectiveparameters

Oftenonlyfeasibleatlimitedspatialscale(e.g.10sofmeters)andrealisticrepresentationoffracturesrequireslargeamountofdata

Challengeofarealisticinclusionoffaultzonesintothemodelingroutine

Longetal.(1982),CaineandForster(1999),Jourdeetal.(2002),CaineandTomusiak(2003),andSurretteandAllen(2007)

Oda(1986),ForsterandSmith(1989),LopezandSmith(1996),BenseandPerson(2006),andMicarellietal.(2006)

basementfaultsintheRockyMountains(Fig.4d;CaineandTomusiak,2003)andJapan(Jefferiesetal.,2006)havealsobeencloselystudiedfortheirhydraulicproperties.Cementationpatternscausedbyﬂuidcir-culationalongfaultsforexampleseenonSpitsbergenFault(Fig.4e)haveevenbeensuggestedasanalogoustolinearfeaturesseenonthesurfaceofMars(Fig.4f;Treiman,2008),therebyprovidingindirectev-idenceforpastcirculationofgroundwateronanotherplainoursolarsystem.

Normalfaultsgenerallyourinextensionaltectonicsettings,re-versefaultsinpressionalsettings,andstrike-slipfaultswhereslipishorizontal.Normalandreversefaultstypicallyhaveadipof~45–70°.Therockabovethefaultzoneiscalledthehangingwall,therockbelowthefaultformsthefootwall.Whenreversefaultshavearelative-lyshallowdip(≪45°)theyarereferredtoasthrustfaults.Thereaderisreferredtotextbooksonstructuralgeologyforfurtherdescriptionoffaultzoneclassiﬁcation(e.g.Fossen,2010).Faultzonepermeabilitystructuresmaybeclassiﬁedinanumberofways(e.g.Karasakietal.,2008),includingbasedonthetypeofdisplacement(normal,thrust/reverseandstrike-slip).However,hereweclassifytheconceptualmodelsoffaultzonehydrogeologyprimarilybasedonrocktype.Wechoosethisjustiﬁcationbecausethestructuralarchitectureoffaults,andtheirresultingpermeabilitystructureandaquiferdevelopment,arestronglycontrolledbyrocktype(Section3.2).

Aﬁrst-orderdescriptionoffaultzonesmonlyincludesafaultfaultcore,asthezoneofthemostintensestrain,isgenerallyfoundinthecenterofthefaultzone,andaommodatesthemajorityofthedis-placementwithinthefaultzone.Thedamagezonehassecondarystruc-turessuchasfractures,andminorfaultsextendingintothefoot-wallandhanging-wall,whichtakeuptheremainderofstrainwithinthefaultzone.Inunlithiﬁedsediments,inwhichmixingofsedimentscanourinthefaultzone(discussedinSection3.1),anadditionalzone,calledthe‘mixedzone’existsinbetweenthedamagezoneandthefaultcore(Heynekampetal.,1999).However,theuseofamixedzone,asageicterminthecontextoffaultzonearchitecture,intheﬁelddescriptionoffaultshasledtoconfusion(e.g.,EvansandBradbury,2004)sowedonotusetheterminthispaperbutonlydistin-guishafaultzoneastoconsistofafaultcoreandadamagezone.

IntheFC–DZframeworkameasurablefaultthicknessisdeﬁnedper-pendiculartothefaultstrikewhichisthesumofthefaultcoreanddam-agezohicknesses(Fig.5b).Thethicknessoffaultzonesincreaseswithfaultthrowordisplacement(Knottetal.,1996;Sperreviketal.,2002;Childsetal.,2007).Thistrendisrelativelyconsistentfordifferenttypesoffaults(normal,reverseandstrike-slip)inarangeofrocktypes(Fig.6).However,Evans(1990)andFaulkneretal.(201

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